Enabling a circular economy for plastics in Europe and beyond is an ambitious goal. To reach a fully closed loop,
numerous challenges and knowledge gaps need to be overcome. This review provides a list of more than 6000 chemicals reported
to be found in plastics and an overview of the challenges and gaps in assessing their impacts on the environment and human
health along the life cycle of plastic products. We further identified 1518 plastic-related chemicals of concern, which
should be prioritized for substitution by safer alternatives. At last, we propose five policy recommendations, including the
need of a global and overarching regulatory framework for plastics and related chemicals, in support of a circular economy
for plastics and of target 12.4 of the UN Sustainable Development Goals.
State of knowledge of
chemicals in plastics
Overview of chemical additives
The production of
chemicals for plastics is continuously
increasing in terms of both quantity and diversity, with several thousand chemicals used across many material applications.
Estimating global additives production is not an easy task, because these data are usually not publicly available. However,
with a global plastic production of 368 Mt in 2019, and assuming 1–10% additives mass fraction for nonfibre plastics,
the total amount of additives used in 2019 might be around 20 (3.6–36.8) Mt. If plastic production follows current
increasing trends, it is estimated that we will have produced 2000 Mt of additives by the end of
2050. Plasticizers are the most used additives and together with flame retardants cover almost 50% of
globally applied additives. Owing to their wide-ranging application and high-production volumes, these two types of additives
have been receiving special attention (e.g. Commission Regulation (EU) 2018/2005).
Additives are applied during the production process at different concentrations based on the specific function
that they need to fulfil. It provides an overview of functions, typical material application, chemical classes, and
application ranges. For example, plasticizer application ranges vary across materials, and can reach up to 60–70% of the
plastic mass in soft
PVC resin products. Other additives
are usually applied at much lower concentrations, such as 0.7–25% for flame retardants or 0.05–5% for stabilizers
and antioxidants. The concentration of unintentional residues is typically <1%. Generally, it is accepted to consider as
NIAS only compounds with a mass <1000 Da, assuming that substances with a higher molecular weight cannot be absorbed in
the body (EU No 10/2011, although there might be some uptake in the gut).
Chemicals reported in plastics
As of today, there is no publicly available database containing a complete and detailed list of chemicals used in
the various plastic products, specifying typical function, plastic types, and mass fraction ranges. In an attempt to provide
such an overview, we used the mapping of plastic additives conducted by the European Chemical Agency (ECHA), and expanded it
with data from 35 additional sources. The considered sources include—amongst others—Annex I of Commission Regulation (EU)
No 10/2011, also called the Union list, which is a positive list of monomers and additives authorized for use in
plastic-based food contact materials, the work conducted by Groh et al., and the Chemicals and Product Categories
database (CPCat; actor.epa.gov/cpcat), which contains information across different categories and materials
As a result, It provides a list of more than 6000 functional additives, pigments and other substances found
(both currently and in the past) in plastics. For each substance, we provide CAS number, main chemical function, typical
application range, and polymer type (when available). For building the data set, we checked and harmonized where needed the
reported chemical names, CAS numbers, and functions. Chemicals were classified according to their specific function in
plastic materials based on the information reported in the considered sources. Wherever such information was missing, we
retrieved the function from other references.
It aims at providing a comprehensive overview of chemicals found in plastics across different polymers and
product applications. It contains various types of substances reported to be found in plastics; consequently, it is not
limited to additives but also includes NIAS, solvents, unreacted monomers, starting substances, and processing aids.
Challenges and gaps in assessing plastic-related chemicals’ impacts in a circularity context
The goal of a circular economy is to move.
Sodium carbonate, activated carbon
and copper-impregnated aluminium are used to absorb the sulphur without the use of water. They give efficiencies of
absorption of 85–90% and have the advantage of not cooling the stack gases. The gases will then rise upwards from the top of
the stack and disperse more widely in the atmosphere.
Food packaging is of high societal value because it conserves and protects food, makes food transportable and
conveys information to consumers. It is also relevant for marketing, which is of economic significance. Other types of food
contact articles, such as storage containers, processing equipment and filling lines, are also important for food production
and food supply. Food contact articles are made up of one or multiple different food contact materials and consist of food
contact chemicals. However, food contact chemicals transfer from all types of food contact materials and articles into food
and, consequently, are taken up by humans. Here we highlight topics of concern based on scientific findings showing that food
contact materials and articles are a relevant exposure pathway for known hazardous substances as well as for a plethora of
toxicologically uncharacterized chemicals, both intentionally and non-intentionally added. We describe areas of certainty,
like the fact that chemicals migrate from food contact articles into food, and uncertainty, for example unidentified
chemicals migrating into food. Current safety assessment of food contact chemicals is ineffective at protecting human health.
In addition, society is striving for waste reduction with a focus on food packaging. As a result, solutions are being
developed toward reuse, recycling or alternative (non-plastic) materials. However, the critical aspect of
chemicals for food safety is often ignored. Developing solutions for
improving the safety of food contact chemicals and for tackling the circular economy must include current scientific
knowledge. This cannot be done in isolation but must include all relevant experts and stakeholders. Therefore, we provide an
overview of areas of concern and related activities that will improve the safety of food contact articles and support a
circular economy. Our aim is to initiate a broader discussion involving scientists with relevant expertise but not currently
working on food contact materials, and decision makers and influencers addressing single-use food packaging due to
environmental concerns. Ultimately, we aim to support science-based decision making in the interest of improving public
health. Notably, reducing exposure to hazardous food contact chemicals contributes to the prevention of associated chronic
diseases in the human population.
Titanium dioxide is odourless
and absorbent. Its most important function in powder form is as a widely used pigment for lending whiteness and opacity
[/b]. Titanium dioxide has been used as a bleaching and opacifying agent in porcelain enamels, giving them brightness,
hardness, and acid resistance.
We supply innovative specialty
chemicals for textile
leathe and related industries that include dyes, pretreatment, bleaching, finishing, coating and special effects
products. Our commercial and technical teams will provide you with unparalleled sales support to fit your needs and keep you
in the loop with the latest market developments.
We provide high quality raw materials, sourced from leading global manufacturers, as well as a wide range of
value-added services including formulation advice, lab support, sampling, and professional handling and delivery of your
products.
The addition of water treatment chemicals has always been considered as a standard operation
in water and wastewater treatment. The concentration of chemicals was usually kept to the minimum necessary to achieve a
good quality of potable or otherwise treated water. A significant interruption to the status-quo occurred more than 20 years
ago after a severe and highly publicized outbreak of Cryptosporidium parvum[/i] oocysts. The strategic planning
after the outbreak was to shift from physical-chemical to physical treatment methods, such as membrane filtration and UV
disinfection. As such, the new procedures were supposed to eliminate the threat of water contamination through a minor
addition of chemicals. Such was the mistrust and disappointment with water treatment chemicals themselves.
Indeed, water treatment technologies, such as
chemicals for water treatment, are now using novel physical treatment methods. Membranes largely replaced granular
filtration, and UV is paving the way towards minimization or elimination of the use of classic disinfection chemicals, such
as chlorine and its derivatives. Yet, far from the “high-tech” revolution in water treatment technologies actually reducing
the use of chemicals, the latter has in fact been significantly increased. The “conventional” chemicals used for pre-
treatment, disinfection, corrosion prevention, softening and algae bloom depression are all still in place. Furthermore,
new groups of chemicals such as biocides, chelating agents and fouling cleaners are currently used to supplement
them. These latter are the chemicals needed to protect the high-tech equipment, to optimize the treatment, and to clean the
equipment between uses.
The health effects of the new chemicals introduced into water are yet to be fully established. Typically, a
higher treatment efficiency requires effective chemicals, yet these are not always environmentally friendly. It seems obvious
that the “high-tech” revolution currently affects the sustainability of water resources, and certainly not in a completely
positive way. In short, the adverse effects of the introduction of such a significant amount of treatment chemicals into our
sources of water are yet to be evaluated.
Employees in printing industries can be exposed to multiple solvents in their work environment, like all sorts of
chemicals for paint and print. The objectives of this study
were to investigate the critical components of chemical solvents by analyzing the components of the solvents and collecting
the Safety data sheets (SDSs), and to evaluate the hazard communication implementation status in printing industries.